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Health Risk Factors of Emissions from Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles: An Up-to-Date Status of the Problem
B. A. Morgunov,
V. P. Chashchin,
A. B. Gudkov,
M. V. Chashchin,
O. N. Popova,
A. N. Nikanov,
Y. Thomassen https://doi.org/10.35627/2219-5238/2022-30-5-7-14
Abstract
Introduction: Motor transport with internal combustion engines powered by diesel fuel and gasoline is one of the main sources of ambient air pollution since its emissions pose an urgent medical and environmental challenge.
The objective of the study was to identify priority types of pollutants from emissions of motor vehicles powered by internal combustion engines based on the results of a systematic review in order to substantiate the main preventive strategy to mitigate the associated public health adverse effects.
Methods: We did keyword search for relevant publications in several electronic databases, such as the Russian Science Citation Index, CyberLeninka, Scopus, and WoS. Research papers published in 2000–2021 were selected for the analysis. Out of 103 topical full-text publications, 59 works met the criteria for inclusion in the systematic review.
Results: We observed that atmospheric emissions of internal combustion engines represent a complex agglomeration of gases, vapors, and particulate matter. The chemicals present in the emissions impair the oxygen transport function by inhibiting cellular respiration, cause irritation of mucous membranes, have mutagenic and carcinogenic effects, contribute to the occurrence of acid rains and to global warming. The biological effect of airborne particles largely depends on their size. It has been established that an increase in the number of airborne particles with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 μm is associated with the risk of endothelial inflammation, thrombosis, increased cell permeability, and DNA methylation. It has been also demonstrated that a 5 µg/m3 increment in ambient concentrations of fine particles (< 2.5 μm) causes a 7 % increase in the mortality rate. At the same time, PM2.5 exposure-related risks of excess deaths from cardiovascular diseases are twice as high as those posed by exposure to PM10.
Conclusions: Diesel and gasoline engine exhausts are a significant risk factor for human health. An effective preventive strategy should be aimed at replacing heavy hydrocarbon motor fuels by compressed gas using hydrogen cells and electric motors.
Supporting agencies: The article was prepared within the framework of a research grant funded by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (Grant ID: 075-15-2020-978).
For citations:
Morgunov B.A., Chashchin V.P., Gudkov A.B., Chashchin M.V., Popova O.N., Nikanov A.N., Thomassen Y. Health Risk Factors of Emissions from Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles: An Up-to-Date Status of the Problem. Public Health and Life Environment – PH&LE. 2022;(5):7-14. https://doi.org/10.35627/2219-5238/2022-30-5-7-14
The use of mineral fuel in internal combustion engines (ICE) of motor vehicles is the largest source of air pollution [1–3], which is a major public health concern worldwide [4–8]. Emissions from road transport account for at least 60 % of the total air pollution in the United States, Germany and France. Annual combustion of 31.2 billion tons of motor fuel in 106 billion tons of atmospheric oxygen generates 137.2 billion tons of additional waste [9]. Cars and trucks contribute major percent to road transport exhaust [10].
Exhaust fumes contain from 200 to 300 pollutants and their compounds [11][12]. At the same time, the term “exhaust fumes” cannot be considered completely correct, since engine emissions include both gases (gas phase) and fine particulate matter (particulate phase).
The objective of the study was to identify, based on the results of a systematic review, priority types of pollutants from emissions of motor vehicles powered by internal combustion engines in order to substantiate the main preventive strategy to mitigate the associated public health adverse effects
Methods. We searched for publications on emissions from internal combustion engine vehicles in several electronic databases, such as the Russian Science Citation Index, CyberLeninka, Scopus, and WoS using the following keywords and phrases: “road transport”, “internal combustion engines”, “air pollution”, and “health risks”.
The main criteria for including the results of published works into the systematic analysis were:
- a detailed description of research objects and methods, a quantitative assessment of exposure to the key components of hazardous emissions of internal combustion engine vehicles;
- compliance of the study design and findings to our research objective, and
- statistical significance of values showing the intensity of exposure to certain ICE exhaust pollutants and distribution of related harmful effects.
Research papers published in 2000–2021 were selected for the analysis, and 59 of 103 topical fulltext publications met the criteria of inclusion in the systematic review.
Results. Emissions produced by internal combustion engines powered by hydrocarbon fuels, such as gasoline, diesel, and fuel oil, are a complex mixture of gas-, vapor-, and fine particulate-phase materials. Their major pollutants include carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons, fine, ultrafine and nano-sized carbonaceous particulate matter (PM), hydrofluorocarbon-134a (HFC-134a), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and other chemicals classified as “hazardous air pollutants” [13][14].
To date, characteristics of the major types of airborne contaminants coming from internal combustion engines utilizing fuels produced from heavy hydrocarbon raw materials, products of their transformation in atmospheric air, and types of exposure-related adverse human health effects have been established (see Table).
Table. Components of internal combustion engine emissions and their potential adverse human health effects
Таблица. Эмиссионные компоненты двигателей внутреннего сгорания и их возможные вредные эффекты на организм человека
Judging by the results of recent national and international research, special attention is paid to aerosol particulate matter (PM) when analyzing ICE emissions [15][16]. This is due to the fact that numerous studies have proven a negative impact of fine particle on human health, including the incidence [17–20] and mortality [21][22] from diseases of cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Contained fine particles include nickel, vanadium, sulfates, nitrates, and silicon compounds [23]. The proportion of nickel in particulate matter is a marker of air pollution with ICE vehicle emissions [24]. Fine PM consists of various airborne objects, such as dust, dirt, soot, smoke, and liquid droplets [25][26].
It has been demonstrated that human health effects of fine particles are largely determined by their aerodynamic diameter: particles smaller than 10 micrometers (PM10) are able to pass through the bronchial tree and accumulate in the lung tissue; particles smaller than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) reach the alveoli, and those smaller than 0.1 μm (PM0.1) penetrate the blood flow [27–30].
Suspended particles smaller than 10 µm (PM10) have no safe exposure threshold and are considered priority pollutants in terms of public health impact [31]. The proportion of such particles in ambient air of industrial cities ranges from 30 % to 60 % of TSP [32–36] and is mainly attributed to motor vehicle exhausts, tire and road surface wear, contribution of which to emissions ranges from 30 % to 40 % [37]. Transport-related PM2.5 was found to induce more pronounced systemic inflammation than industrial particles of similar composition [38]. Diesel exhaust is the major source of PM10 and PM2.5 [39]. Up to 90 % of solid particles emitted by internal combustion engines powered by hydrocarbon fuels are fine particles (PM2.5). They are usually used as the most informative marker of transport-related air pollution intensity produced by internal combustion engines, including for assessing the benefits of using various types of motor fuel, for example, liquefied natural gas compared to diesel or gasoline as regards their potential adverse effects on public health [40].
The analysis of big data arrays, cohort studies and meta-analysis has shown correlations between PM10 air pollution and stoke hospitalizations [41–43] as well as PM2.5 air levels and the risk of stroke [44] and deaths from ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke [45]. It has also revealed that nanoparticles are able to penetrate alveoli [46] and cause inflammation in cellular endothelium [47], which induces increased cell permeability [48] and DNA methylation [49]; arterial fibrillation [50] and autonomous disturbances [8] are observed, leading to higher mortality rates in the population. Thus, every 5 μg/m3 of increment of ambient PM2.5 level accounts for a 7 % increase in the mortality rate [51]. At the same time, the risks of additional deaths from cardiovascular diseases related to PM2.5 exposure are twice as high as those associated with РМ10 [28].
It is assumed that ultrafine fractions of carbonaceous particulate matter pose the most serious health challenge compared to other ICE pollutants [52–55]. Human exposure to the latter usually occurs in the form of a three-phase system: “gas – liquid – particulate matter”, where liquid and partially gaseous phases are absorbed by solid carbon particles, resulting in the phenomenon of deep penetration of liquid and gaseous pollutants to alveoli, the most vulnerable part of the respiratory system [56–58]. It should be noted that ICE pollutants, when not carried in the absorbed form by carbon ultrafine particles, are almost completely absorbed in the upper respiratory tract.
Fine and nano-sized fractions of carbon particles are capable of agglomeration and agglutination, which significantly increases their sorption potential (Figure).
Figure. Agglomeration of airborne carbon and silicon nanoparticles in the vicinity of open-pit mines in Kola Peninsula [59]
Рисунок. Агломерационный комплекс витающих в воздухе наночастиц углерода и кремния в районе размещения открытых карьеров горнодобывающих предприятий Кольского региона [59]
Due to certain biological inertness, elemental carbon particles that have reached the alveoli are capable of accumulation in pulmonary tissue, thus increasing the risk of diseases in the etiology of which carbon black plays an important role as age and duration of employment increase.
Thus, both gaseous and especially particulate phases of emissions from internal combustion engine vehicles are significant public health risk factors.
Conclusions. Gaseous and aerosol air pollution attributed to motor vehicles with internal combustion engines is one of the most important risk factors for non-communicable diseases in the population. The gaseous phase of exhaust fumes mainly affects the respiratory system causing mucous membrane irritation and gas exchange disturbances. Certain gaseous emission components have potential or proven mutagenic and carcinogenic properties and suppress immunity. In addition, gas-phase components of vehicle emissions contribute to acid rains and global warming. Health effects of particulate matter emitted by internal combustion engines are determined by the aerodynamic diameter of particles that can accumulate in pulmonary tissue (PM10), reach the alveoli (PM2.5), and penetrate into the blood flow (PM0.1). Airborne particles affect not only lungs, but also the cardiovascular system and increase risks of death from ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes.
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About the Authors
B. A. Morgunov
Higher School of Economics
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Boris A. Morgunov, Dr. Sci. (Geog.), Director, Institute of Ecology
11 Pokrovsky Boulevard, Moscow, 101000
V. P. Chashchin
Higher School of Economics; North-West Public Health Research Center; I.I. Mechnikov North-Western State Medical University
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Valerii P. Chashchin, Dr. Sci. (Med.), Professor, Institute of Ecology; Chief Researcher; Professor, Department of Preventive Medicine
11 Pokrovsky Boulevard, Moscow, 101000
4, 2nd Sovetskaya Street, Saint Petersburg, 191036
41 Kirochnaya Street, Saint Petersburg, 195067
A. B. Gudkov
Northern State Medical University
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Andrei B. Gudkov, Dr. Sci. (Med.), Professor, Head of the Department of Human Ecology
51 Troitsky Avenue, Arkhangelsk, 163061
M. V. Chashchin
Higher School of Economics; I.I. Mechnikov North-Western State Medical University
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Maxim V. Chashchin, Dr. Sci. (Med.), Senior Research Fellow, Institute of Ecology; Head of the Research Laboratory of Arctic Medicine
11 Pokrovsky Boulevard, Moscow, 101000
41 Kirochnaya Street, Saint Petersburg, 195067
O. N. Popova
Northern State Medical University
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Olga N. Popova, Dr. Sci. (Tech.), Dr. Sci. (Med.); Professor, Department of Human Ecology
51 Troitsky Avenue, Arkhangelsk, 163061
A. N. Nikanov
North-West Public Health Research Center
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Aleksandr N. Nikanov, Cand. Sci. (Med.), Head of Occupational Disease Clinic
4, 2nd Sovetskaya Street, Saint Petersburg, 191036
Y. Thomassen
National Institute of Occupational Health (STAMI)
Norway
Norway
Yngvar Thomassen, PhD (Chem.), Senior Adviser, Department of Chemical and Biological Work Environment
Pb 5330 Majorstuen, 0304, Oslo
Review
For citations:
Morgunov B.A., Chashchin V.P., Gudkov A.B., Chashchin M.V., Popova O.N., Nikanov A.N., Thomassen Y. Health Risk Factors of Emissions from Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles: An Up-to-Date Status of the Problem. Public Health and Life Environment – PH&LE. 2022;(5):7-14. https://doi.org/10.35627/2219-5238/2022-30-5-7-14
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